Meiji Restoration (1868-1912)

“The impact of social and cultural change in Meiji Japan was extensive.” Discuss.Download

Evaluate whether Japan became a modernised nation during the Meiji Period (1868-1912) 

Background

• Followed the Tokugawa period which was a Bakufu military government under a shogun
• Emulated the best facets from Western countries. Seeked the expertise through Iwakura Mission (1871-73).
  • Britain – navy and telegraph system 
  • France – Army, Keishi-cho police, Kempeitai military police 
  • Germany – strong military
  • USA – National bank system, primary school system 
• Fukoku-kyohei slogan “enrich the country, strengthen the military”
• Emulate the West on all levels in the hopes of removal of unequal treaties by levelling up to preserve their sovereignty against West
• Radical approach but pragmatic
  • Meiji Emperor served as unifying figure so reforms would not incite backlash for being overly-Westernised
  • Shintoism reinforced the deification of the Emperor (Meiji oligarchy controlled this god-like figure)
• Aim was to stand on equal footing with West, escape semi-colonial status which extraterritoriality and tariff control had imposed on Japan
• Meiji leaders young, average age just over 30. Power rooted in bureaucratic positions of Oligarchs
  • Powerful oligarchs included: Yamagata, Takamori, Takayoshi, Toshimichi

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Political system of Meiji

Oligarchy

• 1888 – Privy council created made up of the Genro (high-ranking Oligarchy), advised Emperor directly.
• Highest advisory body of state.
• Oligarchs were often ex-Samurai — mirrored the Tokugawa period when Samurai monopolised government positions
• Their positions were not subject to popular election

 

Emperor

Still couched in archaic tradition 

• Emperor highest power, deified by Shinto mythology (“sacred and inviolable”). Transcendent, not subject to public discussion.
• Reverence of Emperor caused asymmetry of political power
• Powerful puppet for oligarchs. Oligarchs used imperial institution to preserve leadership of country.

• Supreme commander of armed forces – military independent of cabinet, responsibly only to Emperor
• Could any time discontinue Diet or dissolve the democratically elected House of Representatives
• Cabinet ministers responsible to Emperor, not elected legislature

 

Diet

House of Peers and Representatives

• Peers: formal feudal lords (oligarchs), imperial nominees and highest tax-payers
  • Served as conservative check on Representatives
  • Could veto legislation passed up by lower house
• Representatives: entirely elected body by limited electorate
  • Electorate was adult males over 25 who paid national taxes of 15 yen or more — only 450 000 in 1890, 1.13% of population
    • Higher tax requirements = heavily weighed towards rural landowners and urban entrepreneurs (ie upper-middle class)
    • Still failed to achieve representation of majority lower-middle class 😦
  • Controlled budget
  • First general election July 1890 — first popularly elected national assembly in Asia 🙂

 

Militaristic elements

• Army and navy general staffs had veto power over cabinet
• Military Chief of Staff independent of civil government and had right of direct access to Emperor.
• Shows still militaristic element leftover from Bakufu (military governance under shogun in Tokugawa Japan) 

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Meiji Reforms

Industrial Policy	1. Fukoku-kyohei   Ministry of Industry established in 1870 Primary aim was to encourage development of industry to create military nation Mining, railway, iron-making, telegraph Eventually translate to warships, ammunition, guns 2. Import substitutes 1866 : Western powers imposed commercial treaties that fixed Japanese tariffs low and under international control 1867-1880 Japan ran trade deficits Government promoted industries that would compete with imports 3. Adopt Western technology Private cotton textile imported advanced English technology in 1880s with gov support Key industries shipbuilding and steel production – Meiji government supported private industry’s adoption of tech Preferential loans, low taxes, massive subsidies Gov support = favourable institutional environment for importation of tech Commercial codes, banking system 4. Development of exports Handcrafts, tea, raw silk originally Boeki Rikkoku strategy – building international trade economy 5. Avoid reliance on foreign loans Meiji gov took over the debts of the bakufu and large domains All debts to foreigners were paid back by 1875 Only 2 loans from 1875-1900 – government bond issues in London capital market
Land Tax	Gov needed income to modernise – primary source was land taxes 80% of population of population engaged in farming Tokugawa period – land taxes collected as fixed percentage of the annual harvest Unreliable and fluctuated = could not plan gov expenditure 1870-73 – reforms made Tax uniform money payment Independent of price of rice 2. Sale and disposal of land made legal Landowners responsible for payment of land tax Land titles issued to them 3. New tax assessed according to value of land Standard tax that would be paid regularly in cash Provide gov with known revenue 4. Encouraged farmers to increase capital investment Increasing agricultural productivity Better implements, seed selection, fertilisers, irrigation Analysis: Major success !! Farming made up ¾ of tax revenue Land tax issued in excess 109million certificates of land ownership Replaced inequitable Tokugawa land tax while not raising taxes
Economic policy	Adopted new standardised currency 1872 National Bank Act 150 banks established 1885 — banking system reformed, established Bank of Japan which replaced national banks Modern banking system by 1890 Established stable and elastic currency Financial policy of austerity and tight money — deflation of economy which resolved the galloping inflation Lifted ban on export of rice 1871 Analysis: Financial system established Ensures there is no corruption, no siphoning off Centralised system, sets regulations and rates → manoeuvre the currency so it is strong. Strong financial system is important to support economic growth and investment Businesses and government can get $$ to stimulate INDUSTRIAL POLICY. Land tax goes here and managed by central authority Promotes foreign investment A priority, started in early 1870s
Private capital	Top-down approach State established model factories Constructed modern cotton mills and British spinning machinery in early Meiji Period Sold to private industry at low prices and easy terms Meiji leaders patriotic and samurai spirit VS traditional merchant class who had inertia Spirit of bushido – unique cultural tradition of leadership inspired selfless dedication to state (opportunistic, ready to take risks, nationalistic) Bottom-up approach Private ownership of land legalised Land assessed at fair market value Smaller rural and urban entrepreneurs independent from gov used more labour-intensive methods of production to increase output Reaction to opportunities for profit Meiji entrepreneurs mostly originated from the gono — wealthy peasant class in villages Silk accounted for 80% of export Analysis: Synthesis — link with land tax Limitation – domination of industries by giant businesses, deprives small businesses from growing Zaibatsus like Mitsui and Mitsubishi But overall not too bad because advanced a few big businesses and smaller ones can then model after. Overall impact was to accelerate growth and modernisation. PRAGMATICi
Army reform	Policy   Modelled after Prussia Nationwide conscription in 1873 Minimum 4 years of service at 21 Able-bodied men only From lower ends of society, impoverished sons who would not inherit land 1873 – peacetime force of 73 000, wartime force of 200 000 Military sophistication Officer training school 1875 Staff College 1883 Analysis Ensures ready defence mechanism Also ensures unified nationalistic ideology — engenders patriotism Emperor was the supreme leader of army Japanese still preserved Bushido spirit and samurai spirit Nationalism built upon existing institutions Fulfils Meiji motto – Fukoku-Kyohei Synthesis with social aims: everyone equal, can join the army, Samurai is not given privileges Reinforcement of the social upheaval into new social structure Old warrior caste expanded into a powerful military Modernisation: Artillery technology taken from Western countries Imperial Guard 1871
Navy reform	1869 – Imperial Japanese Navy (centralised) Previously had shogunate fleet and ships from various domains Naval construction Warships: 17 in 1872 to 28 in 1894 to 76 in 1903 Naval officer training school 1888 + Naval General Staff in 1891 Emperor had executive authority over Navy Analysis Priority in centralising navy But actual development happened in later stages – staggered development Warships damn expensive Impactful — won Sino-Japanese War in 1894 Fleet had 24 modern ships and 24 torpedo boats
Legal and Judicial reform	🙂 Supreme Court established 1875 Criminal Code 1883 Civil Code 1898 Analysis Wanted to impress western powers to abolish unequal treaties Showed that Japan had capability of governing own internal affairs Synthesis with military achievements — culmination of military, economic and judicial reforms removed unequal treaties by 1899 😦 Mix of authoritarian and liberal laws Restricting freedom of speech 1875 – Passed new press laws to prevent attacks on government 1880 – Government passed law to control or prevent public meetings 1887 Peace Preservation Law — allowed government to expel from Tokyo anyone considered to be threat to public order
Educational reform	Student migration   11 000 passports issued between 1868 and 1902 ½ went to USA, government-sponsored Mori Arinori, Minister of Education ensured gov could closely supervise education Ministry prescribed all textbooks, supervised schools through local governments Imperial rescript 1890 – Emperor urged loyalty to tradition Shintoism – native traditions like ancestor-worship Confucian ethics – filial piety, loyalty to superiors and state Emperor’s role is elevated into deified status Focal point as unifying figure Enforced complete loyalty to state (link to army as well) Synthesise: Helps industrial reforms as well Limitation – kind of indoctrination. Cling to traditions. Not free and modern and liberal.

 

Historiography

Henshall – Japanese modernisation had achieved much in 50 years, elevating from a minor Asian power to a world power recognised by the West. In the context of achieving parity with the West, Japan succeeded.

Gordon – Meiji restoration was a top-down revolution instated by sub-elites. But important to acknowledge that the Meiji era was a time of awakening social conscience and the reforms such as new tax system and military conscription were met by occasional defiance.

Jansen – The Meiji restoration was to an extent a surface-level revolution. The leaders grafted new westernised institutions onto their society that still clung onto tradition (Shintoism, Emperor imperial rule).

Pyle – Meiji government grounded reforms in nationalist rhetoric. Stressed the importance of Kokutai (national polity) and subservience to the Emperor. National ideology prevented disillusionment caused by rapid change.